Cancers are debilitating diseases that affect millions of individuals worldwide. They are commonly characterized by a rapidly growing mass of abnormal cells called tumors, which can be benign (non-spreading) or malignant and spread to other bodily areas. These cancers affect physiological processes, often depending on the area in which they are situated. 

Brain cancer is a type of cancer that is situated near or within the brain. Mutations in the DNA of brain cells (e.g, glial cells ) can lead to rapidly growing cells that bypass the normal cell life cycle, forming a benign or malignant tumor. Other cancer subtypes, such as breast cancer and melanoma (i., skin cancer), can spread malignant cancer cells to the brain, causing the formation of tumors within the brain. Risk factors may include age, radiation exposure, and inherited syndromes. In 2025, this type of cancer is estimated to make up 1.2% of all new cancer cases in the U.S. 

One common symptom of brain cancer is headaches. These headaches are characterized by localized pain and other complications such as memory loss and seizures. A brain tumor exerting pressure on nerves or blood vessels within the brain can result in a headache. Brain tumor headaches can have overlapping symptoms with common headaches, such as tension or cluster headaches, and differ based on the pattern of occurrence (i.e, a consistent headache pattern may likely be a migraine, tension headache, or cluster headache). Headaches associated with cancer are likely associated with other conditions. It is important to note that headaches are rarely caused by cancer. 

The areas of the brain that are affected by a brain tumor can result in changes in thought process and bodily functions. The frontal lobe is responsible for cognitive skills (i.e, memory, judgment, and emotional expression), and brain tumors residing in this area can result in apathy (lack of passion or emotion), irritation, and aggression. Brain tumors situated in the temporal lobe, the area of the brain responsible for processing auditory information, are commonly conducive to seizures, forgetting words, and short-term memory loss (inability to recall recent events). Brain tumors situated in the brain’s parietal lobe (can cause incoordination, appearance of weakness, and difficulty with mathematics), occipital lobe (can cause vision issues), and the cerebellum (can cause imbalance and headaches) are responsible for numerous neurological symptoms. 

Brain cancers can be diagnosed by several tests and imaging techniques. Physical tests can check for physical signs of disease, such as lumps, while neurological tests can check for appropriate brain function. Imaging technologies, such as the CT scan that uses X-ray radiation at different angles and the MRI scan that uses magnets and radio waves, can create an aggregate image of the brain. These can assist physicians in identifying tumors within the brain and lead to effective treatment. 

Brain cancers are commonly treated with radiation, chemotherapy, and surgery. Radiation works by utilizing electromagnetic radiation (e.g, X-rays and gamma rays) to kill and reduce the size of tumors. Chemotherapy is a form of chemical treatment that works by utilizing chemicals to kill and slow down the growth of cancer cells. This form of treatment is often coupled with surgery (applied pre-/post-surgery) to ensure that tumor cells are reduced and recurrence is prevented. Surgery can be used to remove a tumor completely or to ease pressure within the brain when the tumor can’t be removed. 

Complications of brain cancer treatment can consist of long-term physical and cognitive changes. Chemotherapy and radiation therapy can cause bone thinning and hormonal changes, depending on the area treated. These treatments may also cause long-term changes to thinking and behavior, such as personality and movement changes. Brain surgery also carries potential side effects, not limited to, but including memory loss, difficulty speaking, and weakness in the arms and legs. Novel treatments such as AI have the potential to assist physicians in optimizing brain cancer treatment by creating personalized treatment plans for each specific patient and providing information regarding precise tumor removal with minimal complications.